STRUCTURE OF RADIUM ISOTOPES
By Prof. Lefteris Kaliambos (Natural Philosopher in New Energy) ( October 2014) Historically the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron (1932) along with the invalid relativity (EXPERIMENTS REJECT RELATIVITY) led to the abandonment of the well-established electromagnetic laws, in favour of various contradicting nuclear theories, which could not lead to the nuclear structure. Under this physics crisis and using the charged UP and DOWN quarks , discovered by Gell-Mann and Zweig, I published my paper “Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism ” (2003), which led to my discovery of the new structure of protons and neutrons given by proton = + 5d + 4u = 288 quarks = mass of 1836.15 electrons neutron = + 4u + 8d = 288 quarks = mass of 1838.68 electrons The paper was also presented at a nuclear conference held at NCSR "Demokritos" (2002). In this photo I present the electromagnetic laws governing the nuclear structure, but a student of Einstein (Dr Th. Kalogeropoulos ) criticised my discovery of nuclear force and structure by believing that the nuclear structure is due to the invalid relativity. In fact, here one can see the 9 charged quarks in proton and the 12 ones in neutron able to give the charge distributions in nucleons for revealing the strong electromagnetic force for the nuclear binding in the correct nuclear structure by applying the laws of electromagnetism. You can see my papers of nuclear structure in my FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS CONCEPTS . Note that according to my discovery of the LAW OF ENERGY AND MASS the mass defect in the nuclear structure is due to the photon mass of the emitting dipolic photon presented at the international conference "Frontiers of fundamental physics" (1993) organised by the natural philosophers M. Barone and F. Selleri , who gave me an award including a disc of the atomic philosopher Democritus. Nevertheless today many physicist continue to apply not the well-established laws but the various fallacious nuclear structure models which lead to complications . Radium (Ra) has no stable or nearly stable isotopes, and thus a standard atomic mass cannot be given. The longest lived, and most common, isotope of radium is Ra-226 with a half-life of 1600 years. Ra-226 occurs in the decay chain of U-238 (often referred to as the radium series.) Radium has 33 known isotopes from Ra-202 to Ra-234. It is well well-known that the structure of lead-164 of high symmetry consists of 8 horizontal planes and 2 horizontal lines. (See the fourth figure of lead at the bottom of the page). Similarly the structure of radium-176 with 88 protons and 88 neutrons (even number) consists of 8 horizontal planes of opposite spins, including four additional deuterons with S = +2 and S = -2 which exist over and under the structure of 8 horizontal planes, forming the up horizontal line (+UHL) and a down horizontal line (-DHL). So all these nucleons of the 8 horizontal planes and the +UHL and the -DHL give S = 0 . Moreover several protons of such a structure provide 50 blank positions able to receive 50 extra neutrons with two bonds per neutron for constructing not a stable isotope, but the unstable long-lived Ra-226 with S =0, because here there is a large number of pp repulsions of long range which always overcomes such pn bonds of short range. ' In general, the structure of Ra-176 (core) has S =0 and is similar to the structure of Pb-164, because the two additional vertical systems of p87n87 and p88n88 with S = 0 make symmetrical vertical rectangles. So the unstable structure of long-lived Ra-226 is based on the structure of Ra-176 in which 50 extra neutrons of opposite spins make two bonds per neutron for constructing the long-lived Ra-226. On the other hand in the heavier unstable nuclides the more extra neutrons than those of the Ra-226 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. ' ' ' STRUCTURE OF Ra-202, Ra-204, Ra-206, Ra-208, Ra-210, Ra-212, Ra-213, Ra-214, Ra-216, Ra-218, Ra-220, Ra-222, Ra-224, Ra-225, Ra-226, Ra-228, Ra-230, Ra-232, Ra-233 AND Ra-234 The structures of this group of unstable nuclides including the long-lived ra-226 are based on the structure of Ra-176 (core) with S =0. For example the unstable nuclides from Ra-202 to Ra-212 of even number of extra neutrons with S= 0 have extra neutrons from 26 to 36 of opposite spins respectively. Moreover the Ra-213 with S = -1/2 of 37 extra neutrons has 18 extra neutrons of positive spins and 19 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = 0 + 18(+1/2) + 19(-1/2) = -1/2 These extra neutrons fill the blank positions and make two bonds per neutron, but the large number of pp repulsions of long range always overcomes such pn bonds of short range. Note that the unstable Ra-234 with S =0 has 58 extra neutrons of opposite spins. Here the 50 extra neutrons fill the 50 blank positions, while the 8 extra neutrons which are more than those of the Ra-226 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to beta minus decay. STRUCTURE OF Ra-203, Ra-205, Ra-207, Ra-209 AND Ra-211 After a careful analysis I found that the structures of such unstable nuclides with odd number of extra neutrons are based on another structure of the Ra-176 (core) having S = -2 . In this case the one deuteron of the up horizontal line (+UHL), like the line of lead, changes the spin from S = +1 to S = -1 giving S = -2, because it goes to the down horizontal line (-DHL) for making horizontal bonds with a deuteron of the down line. For example the Ra-211 with S = -5/2 of 35 extra neutrons has 17 extra neutrons of positive spins and 18 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = -2 + 17(+1/2) + 18(-1/2) = -5/2 Here the 35 extra neutrons fill the 35 blank positions but the large number of pp repulsions of long range always overcomes such pn bonds of short range. 'STRUCTURE OF Ra-215, Ra-217, Ra-219, Ra-221, Ra-223, Ra-227, Ra-229 AND Ra-231 ' After a careful analysis I found that the structures of the above unstable nuclides are based on another structure of Ra-176 (core) having S = +4. In this case the two deuterons of the down horizontal line (-DHL) change their spins from S = -2 to S = +2 giving S = +4. Particularly they go to the up horizontal line (+UHL), for making horizontal bonds with the two deuterons of the up horizontal line. For example the unstable Ra-231 with S = +5/2 of 55 extra neutrons has 26 extra neutrons of positive spins and 29 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = +4 + 26(+1/2) + 29(-1/2) = +5/2 Here the 50 extra neutrons fill the 50 blank positions, while the 5 extra neutrons which are more than those of the Ra-226 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to beta minus decay. ' ' Category:Fundamental physics concepts